Introduction

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

This book fosters the recognition of options for making progress toward increased environmental conservation through an understanding of the underlying science and practice of a variety of conservation techniques. Today, there are expected benefits from integrated science and practice, and many people are promoting this as the way forward to improve our environment. Over time, trends emerge regarding the best way to conserve the environment, but so far an outstanding solution has not emerged.

Each conservation technique has its foundational concepts, limitations, and implementation issues. Reviewing a collection of techniques provides a basis for considering which approach will be best for any specific environmental challenge. This book should advance the recognition of the challenges managing the environment, techniques that can be used to address the challenges, and the ways they might help foster the integration of science and the practice of ecological conservation.

This book is intended for students and management professionals who might benefit from a vision and guiding path that leads toward achieving ecological conservation for the long-term. This book is unique in the Open Educational Resources (OER) space as it seeks to present a range of conservation techniques with differing science concepts and applications.

LOGICAL ORGANIZATION

Our book covers 13 distinct techniques for ecological conservation. Some techniques are old and specified in laws (e.g., standards and criteria, the Endangered Species Act, National Environmental Policy Act), while others are newer and are just beginning to be put into practice more frequently (e.g., ecosystem services, rewilding, and sustainability). Some techniques were proposed by scientists long ago and have more recently become commonly used (e.g., adaptive management, restoration, ecosystem-based management, and ecological engineering). Thus, this book covers a wide range of both old and new ideas about ecological conservation.

Each of the techniques has its own chapter and each chapter begins with a small section introducing the topic and explaining what will be covered. Chapters vary in their content depending on the topic, but common sections include the technique’s basis in science, and a review of the technique in practice with some background on its procedures, implementation issues, controversies, and impediments.

Each chapter also includes a case study to illustrate the application of the technique. Finally, the chapter ends with a short summary of the important aspects of the technique.

The 13 techniques fall into four main categories: fundamental techniques, biologically-focused techniques, habitat-focused techniques, and holistic techniques.

Fundamental techniques

The topics in the fundamental techniques group consist of: 1) science and practice; 2) standards and criteria; and 3) National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Science and practice are distinctly different endeavors that are not easily integrated together to improve ecological conservation. Starting the book with a chapter on the distinctions between science and practice sets the stage for reviewing the techniques in the remaining chapters.

Standards and criteria was the first technique implemented to regulate environmental pollution, and remains a prominent part of current environmental conservation. Science that supports standards and criteria is reviewed, as well as the principles used for assigning these standards. This chapter also reviews how agencies charged with setting standards develop the regulations they enforce. Precise numerical regulations demand clear justification using scientific information and these ideas are discussed. This chapter examines the meanings of standards and criteria, provides lessons on their practical implementation, and explores some examples.

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires an open process for public consideration when potentially major impacts will significantly affect the environment. Passed in 1969, NEPA is considered the Magna Carta of United States environmental laws. There is a long history of NEPA’s use, since almost any work that affects the environment triggers NEPA and results in the generation of impact statements. Hundreds of NEPA impact statements are issued each year so it is easy to feel that this is routine government work. However, the NEPA process was established to improve ecological conservation, and that process will continue. Although old and not considered as a hopeful way to improve the environment today, this technique merits attention because it is an active and central part of ecological conservation. This chapter presents some background on NEPA, a review of the process for implementing it, and an exploration of how it has performed.

Biologically-focused techniques

The topics in the biologically-focused techniques group consist of: 1) rewilding; 2) endangered species protection and recovery; and 3) biomonitoring. The concept of rewilding is grounded in the notion that to have truly natural ecosystems, the ecological processes have to be reestablished, then dynamic natu- ral processes will yield a natural ecosystem. Large carnivores and herbivores are seen as necessary to shape the flora and physical characteristics of a natural environment. Rewilding can be considered a proactive conservation strategy that attempts to restore natural environments by reinvigoration. Rewil- ding can be risky, often with unanticipated and catastrophic effects on native flora and fauna, habitats, and ecosystems. Many conservationists and managers view the rewilding approaches as controversial and not commonly advocated. The main issues are the use of non-native species, high risk of unin- tended consequences, and potentially high public attention. This chapter covers some background on rewilding, the theoretical basis for its use, and examples of implementation.

The United States Endangered Species Act defines the approach to endangered species protection and recovery, and this is a prominent part of ecological conservation in the United States. The provisions of the Act are complicated and extensive, but are important for guiding conservation practices under the law. There has been extensive scientific research on endangered species listings and recoveries, which provides a frame of reference for improving the operation of the Act. In addition, there is an extensive record of actions using the Endangered Species Act to save and recover species. This chapter presents the history and effectiveness of the Endangered Species Act, the process of listing (or delisting) species, and the criteria for determining endangerment and recovery.

The use of biological standards and criteria to perform biomonitoring, which helps us assess biological integrity, emerged from the water regulation arena in the 1970s. Extensive research and scientific principles support biomonitoring, and also foster a better understanding of the quality of environments. There are a wide variety of guides, manuals, and cases using biological properties to assess ecological quality. One distinctive feature of this technique is its reliance on natural reference conditions to set standards. Given natural reference conditions, indices can be used to estimate numerical quality ratings. This technique relies on the biological community to indicate problems and needs, and is well developed for implementation in conservation. This chapter covers a review of the background and reasons for implementing biomonitoring and how it works in practice.

Habitat-focused techniques

The topics in the habitat-focused techniques group consist of: 1) habitat assessment; 2) restoration; and 3) Ecological Engineering. Development often results in a loss of habitat. Habitat is easily defined, inventoried, and mitigated for losses. In ecology there are principles of habitat analyses, and in applied science there is a rich record of research on habitat assessments. Agencies charged with maintaining species and habitats have well-developed methods for identifying habitat losses and mitigation strategies. In practice these methods are routinely employed. In recent years, many ecosystem-scale ecological management plans have been based on habitat analyses for exploring different future scenarios. Landscape scale habitat modeling is fairly new in science, and is applied in practice when considering complex options for ecosystem management. This chapter presents principles of habitat analysis and landscape scale modeling methods, and how these ideas are used in practice to mitigate habitat losses and evaluate tradeoffs.

The traditional definition of restoration is returning an ecosystem to its former, undisturbed state with the original functions and structure. The science on restoration increased greatly in the 1990s and is still growing. Restoration science is diverse in its scope, and addresses measures of success, ecosystem properties, and means for reversing environmental damage. In practice, the scope of restoration is broad and includes public interests, partnerships, and education. Most applications target habitat restoration for specific benefits, which may not seek to return the habitat to its original and natural conditions. This chapter explores the background of restoration, its track record, and details on why this has become a very active management technique.

Humans are creating new ecosystems that have novel properties, possess new biological communities, and support people. Ecological engineering is focused on designing and reconstructing environments consistent with ecological principles and integrating human society with its natural environment. The science aimed at these ecosystems tends to focus on ecosystem stress, defining ecosystem quality, resistance to change, self-organization capacity, and diverse biological structures. Practitioners design strategies for rehabilitating or renewing ecosystems to make better environments that were irreversibly damaged, abandoned, or permanently altered. Creative practices are especially needed in highly stressed ecosystems that are not expected to return to a near natural state. Common goals in establishing new ecosystems are to support greater biodiversity, integrate human activity, and provide sustain- ability through internal system processes. This chapter explores the background of ecological engineering within a framework of ecological stress and health, and delves into the ideas that set ecological engineering apart from restoration.